And this move towards an apparently pleasurable success resonates with a broader opening up of generic boundaries at this time. Early modern literary interest in Hecuba has attracted thoughtful readings. Theater, as Marvin Carlson and Joseph Roach have argued, invokes and recreates the ghosts of the past, and Greek theater, rooted in personages from myth and legend, relies especially self-consciously on familiar legends. Why have we not yet recognized the substantial legacy of Greek plays and their passionate heroines in this period?
Despite some notable challenges, scholars have long held that early modern English playwrights, especially Shakespeare, could not have been familiar with Greek drama.
Greek texts occupied an unstable and uncanny temporal position: they were simultaneously familiar and unknown, authoritative and avantgarde, prior and belated, offering a corrective response to Roman models as well as a point of origin for them.
And trewelie, if there be any good in them, it is either lerned, borowed, or stolne, from some one of those worthie wittes of Athens. The imagined realm of Greek literary origins held its own hierarchy of originality, and early moderns followed an established path in identifying Homer as the ultimate point of literary origin. In keeping with these associations, responses to these newly visible plays prompted new models for literary production.
Recent work on the early modern theater industry has emphasized the collective nature of playing companies, collaborative playwriting, and the crucial contributions of other forms of labor to dramatic productions. I taught Antigone how to speak Latin. Now, coming back to life and escorted by Latin Muses, she approaches, fearing to tarry.
She will bear you wondrous things. In identifying translation and reception as forms of collaboration, this book intervenes in a larger conversation about intertextuality. Their case studies move roughly chronologically, beginning in the middle of the sixteenth century with English translations of Greek tragedies, and continuing on to commercial tragedies, comedies, and tragicomedies in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Modeling forms of female counsel and succession, they implicitly link debates about female monarchs and virginity with questions about the transmission of literary authority.
In the context of the evidence for both the circulation of Greek plays and the education of English playwrights, I argue that familiarity with the most popular of these Greek plays would have been the rule rather than the exception.
I propose, accordingly, that English dramatic references to Greek tragic women have important and unrecognized meanings that alter our understandings of the plays in which they appear. These two foundational English popular tragedies, I argue, build a crucial bridge between newly visible Greek tragic women and the conventions of early modern English tragedy.
Although Shakespeare took his comic plots most conspicuously from Latin and Italian models, he alters these models with Greek settings and allusions that establish the characteristically tragic undertones of his comic worlds. In The Comedy of Errors c. In these plays and many others, Greek tragic women play crucial roles in prompting the sympathetic transmission of emotions at the heart of the theater. By calling on potent earlier models of tragic affect, they produce theatrical electricity, moving audiences both within their plays and beyond.
Just as the theater offers a privileged site for reanimating ghosts of the past, some ghosts offer privileged sites for animating the theater. The early modern afterlives of Hecuba, Iphigenia, Alcestis, and their kin offer some of the most potent of these sites. I suggest that by exploring their theatrical itineraries, we can better understand the reanimation of tragedy, comedy, and tragicomedy on Shakespearean stages.
David H. Horne Yale University Press, William Shakespeare, Hamlet, ed. Plutarch lived c. Prior to the sixteenth century, European usage of these terms typically referred to narrative rather than dramatic structures.
See Frederick S. Annals of English Drama, —, revised. Frederick Morgan Padelford Introduction Luc Deitz Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, , vol. Heywood, Apology for Actors, D1v, D2r. On English access to foreign books, see Alan B. On the transnational impact of European theatrical performances, see Transnational Exchange in Early Modern Theater, ed.
Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Although records may well be incomplete, they suggest that the period before saw 57 editions of Greek tragedians in vernacular translation, as opposed to 24 of Seneca; see Appendices.
Euripides alone, with 38 editions of vernacular translations, outpaces Seneca. For vernacular translations I am equating individually published volumes of translations regardless of whether they include single, multiple, or complete works.
Similarly, in the realm of performance, the 33 documented productions of Greek tragedies again outpace the 26 of Seneca. See Appendices. On the prominence of women in Greek tragedy, see especially Helene P. Rebecca Bushnell Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, , — Agamemnon and Thyestes were by far the most popular of his plays in this period; see Appendices for additional details.
These numbers combine printed editions in Greek and Latin with vernacular translations; see Appendices for additional details.
Sutton and H. Sidney, Defence, F4r. John W. Cunliffe Oxford: Clarendon Press, , 3. Seneca, Troas, trans. Jasper Heywood London, , B3v; see Winston, Dolce expands these lines considerably, but also adapts them very freely; see Dolce, 31v—32r. Stiblinus has the same words; Stiblinus, Daniel Javitch, Renaissance Drama 39 , —55, Giovambattista Giraldi Cinthio Ferrarra, , Giraldi Cinthio, Discourse, Aemilius Portus Heidelberg: Commelinus, Giraldi, trans.
Javitch, ; Discorsi, , Lodovico Castelvetro, Castelvetro on the Art of Poetry, ed. Introduction 35 See Elizabeth D. Whereas Harvey and Enterline explore male authors adopting female voices, I examine male characters echoing earlier female models.
Scholarship on early modern imitation of the classics includes Thomas M. Including Latin and vernacular translations as well as Greek texts, the sixteenth century saw twelve editions of The Phoenician Women, twelve editions of Antigone, and six editions of Oedipus Rex; see Appendices. Charles Martindale and A. Taylor [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ], —22, Craig W.
Kallendorf Oxford: Blackwell, , — The Works of Thomas Kyd, ed. Frederick S. Boas Oxford: Clarendon Press, , repr , xxxvii. Newman Illinois Classical Studies [], —30, Israel Gollancz London: J. Dent, , viii. See Bruce R. See Helene P. In Shakespeare and Classical Antiquity, the only Greek author Colin Burrow discusses is Plutarch, whose belatedness and Roman citizenship align him in many ways with Latin authors.
Ascham, Scholemaster, 17v. Erasmus, Ep. I am grateful to Tania Demetriou for calling this quotation to my attention. James B. The poem is assumed to date from the late s, when Peele studied at Oxford. Baldwin, , 3. Marie-Alice Belle , 5— See Ben Jonson, Bartholomew Fair, ed. In each of these plays, queens earn praise for their political acumen, which the plays present as rooted in the authority of their maternal experience, and which their daughters in turn acquire from them.
Modeling forms of female counsel and succession, both plays implicitly intervene in debates about not only female monarchs, but also the transmission of literary authority to a younger generation. Thomas Linacre, William Grocyn, William Latimer, and Cuthbert Tunstall, who are your friends as well as mine, had a very high opinion of them.
They have a central place, accordingly, in the history of English engagement with Greek plays. Accordingly I have translated the Iphigenia a little more freely and also a little more expansively. By linking acts of transmission with mother—daughter dyads, they offered a model of literary imitation that suggested both intimate exchange and the possibility of a triumphant afterlife for the younger follower. Largely lost from the west by about CE, Greek had attracted glimmerings of interest among European scholars during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and gained momentum when fourteenth-century poets such as Petrarch and Boccaccio struggled to learn the language in order to gain access to lost literary texts.
By the start of the sixteenth century, studying and printing Greek lay at the heart of the humanist project, extolled especially by Erasmus. The language, for him, promised both religious authority and intoxicating access to lost and hidden literary realms. These men played crucial roles in shaping the development of English humanist education. She went on to found St. They watch by night, they go hungry, they suffer heat and cold, there is nothing they do not do to make it their own.
In Thomas Cromwell required the wealthier colleges at 48 Greek Tragic Women on Shakespearean Stages both universities to provide daily public lectures in Greek, which students from poorer colleges were required to attend, under penalty of not being fed; he also established the King Henry VIII lectures, public readerships in Greek or Hebrew at both universities, which in became the Regius Professorships. In Ascham, who had studied with Cheke in the s and went on to join him in teaching at St.
Sophocles and Euripides are here better known than Plautus used to be when you were up. Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, are more on the lips and in the hands of all now than Livy was then. What you used to hear about Cicero you now hear about Demosthenes. There are more copies of Isocrates in the hands of young men than there were of Terence then. And while no women attended Cambridge or Oxford in this period, educating young women in Greek became a hallmark of aristocratic elites, in keeping with a new emphasis on companionate marriage encouraged by Erasmus and Sir Thomas More.
Lumley shows the potent affect unleashed by maternity as mobilizing not only mothers themselves, but also their audiences, especially the intimate audiences of their own kin.
Considering that she was slaine bi the hands of her owne father: Wherfore if you will not be moued with pitie, take hede leste you compelle me to speke thos thinges, that do not become a good wife: yea and you your selfe do thos thinges that a good man ought not.
Her future vengeance looms as an inevitable consequence of his wrongful action. Equally important, she uses her intelligence not to deceive, or to persuade others to ease her predicament—as do other clever Euripidean women, most infamously Medea—but instead to recognize the glory that she will personally earn in actively choosing, and embracing, a heroic death. Assessing the state of Greek literacy requires attending not only to the steadily increasing opportunities and requirements for learning Greek at the universities, but especially to the rising standard of Greek study in the grammar schools, which were far more widely attended.
The new humanism was most forcefully enacted in St. Bees, Cumberland , Hawkshead school, Lancashire , Harrow , and more. Greek Plays in England 59 Knowledge of Greek did not necessarily mean knowledge of Greek plays, but, as noted earlier, they were among the texts advocated by Erasmus and emerging humanist theories of education.
Cum annotate. The statutes of St. Whatever the precise numbers, scholars took pride in their Greek theatricals. In , William Soone wrote from Cambridge, In the months of January, February and March, to beguile the long evenings, they amuse themselves with exhibiting public plays, which they perform with so much elegance. Unlike Lumley, a privately taught aristocrat whose translation seems to have been intended for an intimate household audience, George Gascoigne and Francis Kinwelmersh were established poets and members of the Inns of Court, an institution spanning private and public realms.
Howard B. Arlene W. She is the heart of Thebes, as well as the heart of the tragedy. Although Jocasta opens the play, and occupies its affective center, she does not survive to encompass it fully.
Yet rather than incapacitating her, as it ultimately does her mother, this grief mobilizes a new boldness in Antigone. Now, coming back to life and escorted by Latin Muses, she approaches, fearing to tarry at Thebes. She will bear you wondrous things, if you wish to learn wonderments; she would make you pious, were you not such beforehand. These things and more Antigone will set before your eyes, taught to teach by my effort.
Unmoored from her perishable mother, she develops even greater strength over time, continuing a process of transmission in which she plays an integral part. Yet exploring the evidence of Greek study in England shows that readers and audiences had access to Greek plays even beyond these translations and the Latin editions that demonstrably circulated in England. Grammar schools and universities not only taught Greek to increasingly large numbers, but also sponsored performances of Greek plays that were open to the public as well as to students, teachers, and parents.
For the grammar school-trained boys who went on to write for the commercial theater, in fact, they would have been hard to miss. The early Elizabethan playwrights known as the University Wits had extensive Greek training.
N OTES 1. Reynolds and N. Carmine di Biase Amsterdam: Rodopi, , 45— Craig R. Thompson Toronto: University of Toronto Press, , —91, On the St. Owen, , 15— Mynors and D. If any new Greek books have come upon the scene, I would rather pawn my coat than fail to obtain them.
I am grateful to Bianca Calabresi for calling this dedication to my attention. See Michael K. Jones and Malcolm G. Lady Margaret was no longer alive when St. See F. Giles, 3 vols, vol. Smith, , 25—7, 26; English translation in English Historical Documents, —, ed.
Williams Oxford: Oxford University Press, , —1. Diana Maury Robin, Anne R. Purkiss London and New York: Penguin, , xxvii. Kathryn M. Moncrief, and Kathryn R. Harold Child Malone Society Reprints, ; all citations refer to this edition. LVIII v. See Ward, Women and Tudor Tragedy, Erasmus Basel: Johannes Froben, , n6r; translation mine. Latinam interpretationem M. See also Mary R. Uman, Women as Translators, Barbara E. Goff Austin: University of Texas Press, , — Purkiss, Three Tragedies, xxx.
On Greek classes at St. Greek Tragic Women on Shakespearean Stages Robert J. Fehrenbach, E. Leedham-Green, and Joseph L. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, , I. Studies of the literary roots, and consequences, of sixteenth-century English schoolrooms include T. Records of documented performances are almost certainly incomplete, but the differences between English and continental documented performance traditions are suggestive; see Appendices.
The St. Oxford: Clarendon Press, , 16— See Boas, University Drama, Identifying details of plays presented in performance is precarious, but extant records indicate considerably more Greek plays produced in England than elsewhere; see Appendix 4 for details. Nelson, ed. Records of Early English Drama: Cambridge, , s. Boas, University Drama, , —8. Others, such as two productions of Octavia , , refer to plays no longer attributed to Seneca, though I include them as Senecan on the grounds that they were considered such in the period.
Brewer, On the literary prominence of the Inns of Court, see A. See Robert S. Naomi Liebler New York: Palgrave, , 33— See J. Mahaffy, Euripides London, , —45; Max Th. The Latin edition that Dewar-Watson discusses is Evripidis. Greek Plays in England 83 Elizabeth W.
According to their own notes in the play, Kinwelmersh translated Acts 1 and 4, while Gascoigne translated Acts 2, 3, and 5. Gilbert Murray Oxford: Clarendon Press, , vol. To anticipate or act in advance. To act in anticipation of, or in preparation for.
Papadopolou, Euripides: Phoenician Women, 70; see also Falkner, , —9. See Euripides, Phoenissae, ed. Donald J. See Norland, Neoclassical Tragedy, 85—6.
I am grateful to Tania Demetriou for calling this passage to my attention. Greek Plays in England 85 Arthur F. Earlier, G. Moore Smith similarly observed that college drama gradually developed away from the more didactic aspect of its classical roots toward an emphasis on recreation, and on comedy, matching the focus in the commercial stage; see College Plays Performed in the University of Cambridge Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , Alan H.
On school drama, see T. The Works of Thomas Nashe, ed. McKerrow, rev. Wilson, 5 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, , III. Jonson cites ll. Demetriou and Pollard, 79— I must answere them with that of Eurypides to Alcestides, a Tragicke Writer: Alcestides objecting that Eurypides had onely in three daies composed three verses, whereas himself had written three hundreth: Thou telst truth, quoth he but heres the difference, thine shall onely bee read for three daies, whereas mine shall continue three ages.
William Thomas Mellows, vol. I am grateful to Lucy Munro for sharing this information and these references. Records show that St. Roma Gill Oxford: Clarendon Press, , 1. Lordi, in The Plays of George Chapman, ed. Allan Holaday Cambridge: D. Brewer, , 2. Titus Andronicus receives more discussion in Chapter 2. Tracing the legacies of Greek tragic women in two foundational commercial plays illuminates an unfamiliar genealogy of English tragedy.
Both include 90 Greek Tragic Women on Shakespearean Stages self-conscious allusions to Seneca and Ovid, but they also gesture to the Greek prototypes hovering behind these Roman poets.
They also suggest an evolution from implicit borrowings to more explicit debts. By introducing and instructing Revenge, Proserpine quietly conveys her responsibility for the dream-like drama that will unfold. As patron and commissioner, she steers the play, hovering invisibly behind the strong-willed Bel-Imperia and Isabella.
Help, Hieronimo, help! Lady, was it you? And is my son gone too? Her language frames her suffering in material terms, as a force of nature with devastating consequences. Seest thou those wounds that yet are bleeding fresh? Then will I joy amidst my discontent.
Till then my sorrow never shall be spent. But while Isabella imagines an everlasting storm, he imagines blood ending blood, joy replacing sorrow. And although her stormy vision suggests less optimism, Isabella similarly prophesies the retribution that her husband craves.
In her emphasis on revenge, she implicitly echoes both BelImperia and Proserpine, and joins their efforts in steering the play towards its violent end. In the third act she reaches out from the tower where her brother Lorenzo has imprisoned her, by sending a letter written in blood. Me hath my hapless brother hid from thee. Revenge thyself on Balthazar and him, For these were they that murdered thy son. Writing with the contents of her own body, as Bianca Calabresi has observed, she highlights her authenticity as a witness.
As with her ecological metaphor of the storm, Isabella imagines her garden as a version of herself. Further developing the genealogical vocabulary of kindness and fruit, she compares his emotional investments unfavorably with maternal counterparts: Unhappy mothers of such children then!
But monstrous fathers to forget so soon The death of those whom they, with care and cost, Have tendered so, thus careless should be lost! He introduces his performance as a revival, rooted in his literary education. By linking the play with his own pedagogical history, he hints at the broader role of humanist study in recalling and reproducing the literary past. The play avenges its wrongs through female passions. In preparing for the show, moreover, Hieronimo attributes his renewed impetus to Isabella.
Behoves thee then, Hieronimo, to be revenged. After this action, she introduces her own variation on her role. Imitating the Queen of Troy 97 After the performance, Hieronimo directly links his tragedy to ancient Greek tradition.
By singling out Ajax, in contrast with the unnamed Roman peer, he also underscores his decision to speak his own lines of the play in Greek, presenting his play as a version of Greek tragedy. Behavioural data Participants in the 50 ms prime condition correctly identified an average of Open in a separate window.
Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Re-analyses with ambiguous items removed The norming of our stimuli with respect to the degree of semantic relatedness between primes and targets see Appendix revealed that some items in all three categories were ambiguous, in that their rated semantic relatedness did not correspond to the category to which they had been assigned.
Re-analyses with suffixes equated for repetition One potential problem with our stimuli and in fact with those of all previous studies that have contrasted suffixed derived words, pseudocomplex words, and orthographic controls , is that the opaque and transparent primes always included many more repetitions of the final orthographic-morphological strings than the orthographic primes, in which there were almost no repetitions of the final orthographic sequences.
Re-analyses with items that show a phonological stem change removed One potential problem with our stimuli and again a problem for all previous studies that have looked at pseudo-affixation in English , is that the opaque and orthographic primes but not the transparent primes often undergo a phonological change between the stem and the pseudoaffixed form e.
Summary of results Overall, we found a fairly consistent pattern in the data. The N component and masked morphological priming The results of prior research combining ERPs and masked priming Lavric et al. N and masked morphological priming One surprising aspect of the present results is that the N component was relatively insensitive to masked morphological priming, particularly at the short 50 ms prime duration.
Conclusions The present study provided further evidence for prelexical segmentation of morphologically complex words, in an experiment where participants silently read target words for meaning. This research was supported by grant numbers HD and HD Are vowels and consonants processed differently? ERP evidence with a delayed letter paradigm. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. Effects of stimulus font and size on masked repetition priming: An ERP investigation.
Language and Cognitive Processes. The N potential could index a semantic inhibition. Brain Research Reviews. The interdependence of spatial attention and lexical access as revealed by early asymmetries in occipito-parietal ERP activity. Derivational morphology and skilled reading: An empirical overview. The Cambridge handbook of psycholinguistics. Masked cross-modal morphological priming: Unravelling morpho-orthographic and morpho-semantic influences in early word recognition.
An ERP investigation of location invariance in masked repetition priming. Cognitive Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience. Effects of prime word frequency and cumulative root frequency in masked morphological priming. Priming complex words: Evidence for supralexical representation of morphology. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. Masked repetition and phonological priming within and across modalities. The time course of orthographic and phonological code activation. Psychological Science.
Neural constraints on a functional architecture for word recognition. The neural basis of reading. Oxford University Press; Oxford: in press. Effects of word length and frequency on the human event-related potential. Clinical Neurophysiology. On the time course of visual word recognition: An event-related potential investigation using masked repetition priming.
Exploring the temporal dynamics of visual word recognition in the masked repetition priming paradigm using event-related potentials. Brain Research. An electrophysiological study of the effects of orthographic neighborhood size on printed word perception. The effects of prime visibility on ERP measures of masked priming. Cognitive Brain Research. The incremental priming technique: A method for determining within-condition priming effects.
Perception and Psychophysics. Masked cross-modal repetition priming: An event-related potential investigation. ERP evidence of morphological analysis from orthography: A masked priming study.
Morphological priming without morphological relationship. Semantic transparency and masked morphological priming: An ERP investigation. On the time course of letter perception: A masked priming ERP investigation. Morphological and semantic effects in visual word recognition: A time-course study. Measuring word recognition in reading: Eye movements and event-related potentials. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Interactive-activation as a framework for understanding morphological processing.
Lexical storage and retrieval of prefixed words. Full text links Read article at publisher's site DOI : Smart citations by scite. The number of the statements may be higher than the number of citations provided by EuropePMC if one paper cites another multiple times or lower if scite has not yet processed some of the citing articles. Explore citation contexts and check if this article has been supported or disputed.
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OAI service. When a cat girl gets preg, their stomach turns white or red. Not whatever cat fur color it ought to be. The gap consists of a line of black pixels or just the background showing though her body. You can download the. Hopefully that can help you adress them in the nearest updates. In my particular case it was the "left" button on nose customisation bar but it could be anywhere else i just don;t have definitive data on that.
That other time it was "right button" on hair option on secondary character. Issue 5 MC character as well as B. If you undress a secondary character in the Dorm menu there's currently no way to undo it. That is their clothes get lost. Though if you inquire her inside house its ok. Issue 8 Upon loading, customer status in the brothel resets, that is one would be able to abuse this issue to get infinite customers per day.
Str stat remains unchanged. Text load Issue 11 Upgrade costs went to unidentified. For obedience training it does not even deduct stamina sometimes maybe it shouldn't and disciplining without stamina penalty is fine but i remember some times it deducting and not letting proceed with disciplining without stamina, and other times it works without deducting stamina.
Issue 13 Aquiring weapons breaks combat system. Bottom left character will treat a sword as if it was a dagger. As it is the save system does not track your affinity status with Ladja, Keet and others, therefore upon loading a save you'll get not only old dialogue but option to recruit them again i.
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Suggestion 1. Please implement tracking of player progress so that old tutorials and dialogues don't restart upon loading a save. Make it possible to load without exiting and restarting the game. Suggestion 3.
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Suggestion 6 An option to watch daily report again in case player skips or forgets it the first time. That'll be all for now. I downloaded the Newgrounds player which is supposed to play the Flash games from Newgrounds but was not able to get the game to open.
The guy behind this game just vanished with no trace, no update, no goodbye, no releasing the game's code, nothing. Be sure to check out our homepage for all the latest news, and follow 9to5Google on Twitter , Facebook , and LinkedIn to stay in the loop.
Check out our exclusive stories , reviews , how-tos , and subscribe to our YouTube channel. About the Author Abner Li technacity Editor-in-chief.
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