Ask someone else to read your text. Here are some guidelines for collaborating successfully. This is especially important when collaborating online. Without tone of voice, facial expressions, and other body language, your words carry all the weight. Remember also that what you write may be forwarded to others. Group members may not all have access to the same equipment and software. Name files carefully. Appoint one person as timekeeper and another person as group leader; a third member should keep a record of the discussion and write a summary afterward.
Here one writer recalls when he first understood what a paragraph does. The words themselves were mostly foreign, but I still remember the exact moment when I first understood, with a sudden clarity, the purpose of a paragraph. The words inside a paragraph worked together for a common purpose. They had some specific reason for being inside the same fence.
It offers tips and examples for composing strong paragraphs. There is, of course, nothing naturally abhorrent in the human impulse to dwell in marketplaces or the urge to buy, sell, and trade. Rural Americans traditionally looked forward to the excitement and sensuality of market day; Native Americans traveled long distances to barter and trade at sprawling, festive encampments. In Persian bazaars and in the ancient Greek agoras the very soul of the community was preserved and could be seen, felt, heard, and smelled as it might be nowhere else.
Often, but not always, you might start a paragraph with a topic sentence, as in this example from an essay about legalizing the sale of human kidneys. Dialysis is harsh, expensive, and, worst of all, only temporary. Acting as an artificial kidney, dialysis mechanically filters the blood of a patient. It works, but not well.
With treatment sessions lasting three hours, several times a week, those dependent on dialysis are, in a sense, shackled to a machine for the rest of their lives. Adding excessive stress to the body, dialysis causes patients to feel increasingly faint and tired, usually keeping them from work and other normal activities.
See how this strategy works in another paragraph in the essay about kidneys. In a legal kidney transplant, everybody gains except the donor. The doctors and nurses are paid for the operation, the patient receives a new kidney, but the donor receives nothing. Sure, the donor will have the warm, uplifting feeling associated with helping a fellow human being, but this is not enough reward for most people to part with a piece of themselves.
In an ideal world, the average person would be altruistic enough to donate a kidney with nothing expected in return. The real world, however, is run by money. We pay men for donating sperm, and we pay women for donating ova, yet we expect others to give away an entire organ with no compensation.
If the sale of organs were allowed, people would have a greater incentive to help save the life of a stranger. I came to the United States in at age 3 with my family and immediately stopped speaking Spanish. Whether or not you announce the main point in a topic sentence, be sure that every sentence in a paragraph relates to that point.
Edit out any sentences that stray off topic, such as those crossed out below. Previous generations of immigrants were encouraged to speak only English. When someone poses a question to her in Spanish, she often has to respond in English. In other instances, she tries to speak Spanish but falters over the past and future tenses. Situations like these embarrass Barrientos and make her feel left out of a community she wants to be part of.
Native Guatemalans who are bilingual do not have such problems. Analyzing cause and effect. The following paragraph about air turbulence identifies some of its causes. A variety of factors can cause turbulence, which is essentially a disturbance in the movement of air. See how two social scientists use classification to explain the ways that various types of social network websites SNSs make user profiles visible. The visibility of a profile varies by site and according to user discretion.
By default, profiles on Friendster and Tribe. Alternatively, LinkedIn controls what a viewer might see based on whether she or he has a paid account. Structural variations around visibility and access are one of the primary ways that SNSs differentiate themselves from each other. See how the following paragraph divides the concept of pressure into four kinds.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and selfinduced pressure. But there are no villains; only victims. One is to shift back and forth between each item point by point, as in this paragraph contrasting the attention given to a football team and to academic teams. The football players enjoyed the attentions of an enthralled school, complete with banners, assemblies, and even video announcements in their honor, a virtual barrage of praise and downright deification.
As for the three champion academic teams, they received a combined total of around ten minutes of recognition, tacked onto the beginning of a sports assembly. After all, why should they? See how this approach works in the following example, which contrasts photographs of Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton on the opening day of the baseball season.
The next day photos of the Clintons in action appeared in newspapers around the country. The one of Bill Clinton showed him wearing an Indians cap and warm-up jacket. The President, throwing lefty, had turned his shoulders sideways to the plate in preparation for delivery. He was bringing the ball forward from behind his head in a clean-looking throwing action as the photo was snapped. In preparation for her throw she was standing directly facing the plate.
A right-hander, she had the elbow of her throwing arm pointed out in front of her. Her forearm was tilted back, toward her shoulder. The ball rested on her upturned palm. As the picture was taken, she was in the middle of an action that can only be described as throwing like a girl. See how one writer uses analogy to explain the way DNA encodes genetic information. Although the complexity of cells, tissues, and whole organisms is breathtaking, the way in which the basic DNA instructions are written is astonishingly simple.
Like more familiar instruction systems such as language, numbers, or computer binary code, what matters is not so much the symbols themselves but the order in which they appear. In exactly the same way the order of the four chemical symbols in DNA embodies the message. The following paragraph provides brief definitions of three tropical fruits. I walked onto a patio speckled with dark stains, as if the heavens had been spitting down on it. I looked up; there were the two trees responsible.
One was a lollipop mango tree. The other was a nispero tree. Beyond the patio, I saw a mammee tree, which bears large, football-shaped fruit. Here a paragraph weaves together details of background, appearance, and speech to create a vivid impression of Chuck Yeager, the first pilot to break the sound barrier. His father was a gas driller drilling for natural gas in the coalfields , his older brother was a gas driller, and he would have been a gas driller had he not enlisted in the Army Air Force in at the age of eighteen.
In , at twenty, he became a flight officer, i. Even in the tumult of the war Yeager was somewhat puzzling to a lot of other pilots. What was puzzling was the way Yeager talked. He seemed to talk with some older forms of English elocution, syntax, and conjugation that had been preserved uphollow in the Appalachians. Cookbooks explain many processes step-by-step, as in this explanation of how to pit a mango.
The simplest method for pitting a mango is to hold it horizontally, then cut it in two lengthwise, slightly off-center, so the knife just misses the pit. Repeat the cut on the other side so a thin layer of flesh remains around the flat pit.
Holding a half, flesh-side up, in the palm of your hand, slash the flesh into a lattice, cutting down to, but not through, the peel. Carefully push the center of the peel upward with your thumbs to turn it inside out, opening the cuts of the flesh.
Then cut the mango cubes from the peel. One such incident that has stayed with me, though I recognize it as a minor offense, happened on the day of my first public poetry reading. It took place in Miami in a boat-restaurant where we were having lunch before the event. I was nervous and excited as I walked in with my notebook in my hand. An older woman motioned me to her table. Thinking foolish me that she wanted me to autograph a copy of my brand-new slender volume of verse, I went over.
She ordered a cup of coffee from me, assuming that I was the waitress. Easy enough to mistake my poems for menus, I suppose. We shook hands at the end of the reading, and I never saw her again. She has probably forgotten the whole thing but maybe not. Illustrating a point with one or more examples is a common way to develop a paragraph, like the following one, which uses lyrics as examples to make a point about the similarities between two types of music.
On a happier note, both rap and [country-and-western] feature strong female voices as well. Repetition, parallelism, and transitions are three strategies for making paragraphs flow. One way to help readers follow your train of thought is to repeat key words and phrases, as well as pronouns referring to those key words.
Not that long ago, blogs were one of those annoying buzz words that you could safely get away with ignoring. Unlike a big media outlet, bloggers focus their efforts on narrow topics, often rising to become de facto watchdogs and self-proclaimed experts.
Blogs can be about anything: politics, sex, baseball, haiku, car repair. There are blogs about blogs. Predictably, the love of cinema has waned. And wonderful films are still being made. The disease was bubonic plague, present in two forms: one that infected the bloodstream, causing the buboes and internal bleeding and was spread by contact; and a second, more virulent pneumonic type that infected the lungs and was spread by respiratory infection.
The presence of both at once caused the high mortality and speed of contagion. Yolanda, the third of the four girls, became a schoolteacher but not on purpose. For years after graduate school, she wrote down poet under profession in questionnaires and income tax forms, and later amended it to writer-slash-teacher. Today the used-book market is exceedingly well organized and efficient. Campus bookstores buy back not only the books that will be used at their university the next semester but also those that will not.
Those that are no longer on their lists of required books they resell to national wholesalers, which in turn sell them to college bookstores on campuses where they will be required. This means that even if a text is being adopted for the first time at a particular college, there is almost certain to be an ample supply of used copies.
But while a brief, one- or two-sentence paragraph can be used to set off an idea you want to emphasize, too many short paragraphs can make your writing choppy. Opening paragraphs. In the following opening paragraph, the writer begins with a generalization about academic architecture, then ends with a specific thesis stating what the rest of the essay will argue.
Academic architecture invariably projects an identity about campus and community to building users and to the world beyond. Yet in other cases, the architectural language established in surrounding precedents may be more appropriate, even for high-tech facilities.
The bottom line is that drastically reducing both crime rates and the number of people behind bars is technically feasible. Whether it is politically and organizationally feasible to achieve this remains an open question.
Sometimes you can rely on established design conventions: in academic writing, there are specific guidelines for headings, margins, and line spacing. No matter what your text includes, its design will influence how your audience responds to it and therefore how well it achieves your purpose.
To keep readers oriented as they browse multipage documents or websites, use design elements consistently. In a print academic essay, choose a single font for your main text and use boldface or italics for headings. In writing for the web, place navigation buttons and other major elements in the same place on every page.
Keep it simple. Resist the temptation to fill pages with unnecessary graphics or animations. Aim for balance. Create balance through the use of margins, images, headings, and spacing. Use color and contrast carefully. Academic readers usually expect black text on a white background, with perhaps one other color for headings. Make sure your audience will be able to distinguish any color variations in your text well enough to grasp your meaning.
Use available templates. To save time and simplify design decisions, take advantage of templates. In Microsoft Word, for example, you can customize font, spacing, indents, and other features that will automatically be applied to your document.
Websites that host personal webpages and presentation software also offer templates that you can use or modify. The following guidelines will help you make those decisions. The fonts you choose will affect how well readers can read your text. Decorative fonts such as should be used sparingly. If you use more than one font, use each one consistently: one for headings, one for captions, one for the main body of your text.
Every common font has regular, bold, and italic forms. Layout is the way text is arranged on a page. An academic essay, for example, will usually have a title centered at the top and one-inch margins all around.
Items such as lists, tables, headings, and images should be arranged consistently. Line spacing. In general, indent paragraphs five spaces when your text is double-spaced; either indent or skip a line between paragraphs that are single-spaced. When preparing a text intended for online use, single-space your document, skip a line between paragraphs, and begin each paragraph flush left no indent. Use a list format for information that you want to set off and make easily accessible.
Number the items when the sequence matters in instructions, for example ; use bullets when the order is not important. Set off lists with an extra line of space above and below, and add extra space between the items on a list if necessary for legibility. White space and margins. To make your text attractive and readable, use white space to separate its various parts. In general, use one-inch margins for the text of an essay or report.
Headings make the structure of a text easier to follow and help readers find specific information. Whenever you include headings, you need to decide how to phrase them, what fonts to use, and where to position them. Phrase headings consistently. Make your headings succinct and parallel in structure.
Whatever form you decide on, use it consistently. Make headings visible. Position headings appropriately. If you are not following a prescribed format, you get to decide where to position the headings: centered, flush with the left margin, or even alongside the text, in a wide lefthand margin.
Position each level of head consistently. In print documents, you can often use photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams. Online or in spoken presentations, your options expand to include video and printed handouts. A discussion of Google Glass might be clearer when accompanied by this photo. Tables are useful for displaying numerical information concisely, especially when several items are being compared.
Presenting information in columns and rows permits readers to find data and identify relationships among the items. Pie charts can be used to show how a whole is divided into parts or how parts of a whole relate to one another.
Percentages in a pie chart should always add up to Plotting the lines together enables readers to compare the data at different points in time.
Be sure to label the x and y axes and limit the number of lines to four at the most. Some software offers 3-D and other special effects, but simple graphs are often easier to read. Diagrams and flowcharts are ways of showing relationships and processes. This diagram shows how carbon moves between the Earth and its atmosphere. Flowcharts can be made by using widely available templates; diagrams, on the other hand, can range from simple drawings to works of art. Avoid clip art. Position images as close as possible to the relevant discussion.
Italian Economic Growth Rate, — If you use data to create a graph or chart, include source information directly below. Large files may be hard to upload without altering quality and can clog email inboxes. Linking also allows readers to see the original context. To include your own video, upload it to YouTube; choose the Private setting to limit access.
Be sure to represent the original content accurately, and provide relevant information about the source. Whatever the occasion, you need to make your points clear and memorable. This chapter offers guidelines to help you prepare and deliver effective presentations.
Spoken texts need a clear organization so that your audience can follow you. The beginning needs to engage their interest, make clear what you will talk about, and perhaps forecast the central points of your talk.
The ending should leave your audience something to remember, think about, or do. In the Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln follows a chronological structure.
A tone to suit the occasion. In a presentation to a panel of professors, you probably would want to avoid too much slang and speak in complete sentences.
Slides and other media. Organize and draft your presentation. If in drafting you find you have too many points for the time available, leave out the less important ones. Thank your listeners, and offer to take questions and comments if the format allows. Consider whether to use visuals. Remember, though, that visuals should be a means of conveying information, not mere decoration. You then offer only a brief introduction and answer questions.
What visual tools if any you decide to use is partly determined by how your presentation will be delivered: face to face?
You may also have to move furniture or the screen to make sure everyone can see your visuals. Finally, have a backup plan. Computers fail; the internet may not work. Have an alternative in case of problems. Presentation software.
Here are some tips for writing and designing slides. Use slides to emphasize your main points, not to reproduce your talk. A list of brief points, presented one by one, reinforces your words; charts and images can provide additional information that the audience can take in quickly. On slides, sans serif fonts like Arial and Helvetica are easier to read than serif fonts like Times New Roman.
Your text and illustrations need to contrast with the background. Dark content on a light background is easier to see and read than the reverse.
Decorative backgrounds, letters that fade in and out or dance across the screen, and sound effects can be more distracting than helpful; use them only if they help to make your point. Indicate in your notes each place where you need to advance to the next slide. Label handouts with your name and the date and title of the presentation. Practice, practice, and then practice some more. Your audience will respond positively to that confidence.
If possible, practice with a small group of friends to get used to having an audience. Speak clearly. Pause for emphasis. In writing, you have white space and punctuation to show readers where an idea or discussion ends. Stand up or sit up straight, and look at your audience.
Use gestures for emphasis. To overcome any nervousness and stiffness, take some deep breaths, try to relax, and move your arms and the rest of your body as you would if you were talking to a friend.
To read an example presentation, go to digital. This chapter provides a description of the key elements of an essay that argues a position and tips for writing one. To be arguable, a position must reflect one of at least two points of view, making reasoned argument necessary: file sharing should or should not be considered fair use; selling human organs should be legal or illegal.
Necessary background information. Sometimes, we need to provide some background on a topic so that readers can understand what is being argued. To argue that file sharing should be considered fair use, for example, you might begin by describing the rise in file sharing and explaining fair-use laws. Good reasons. By itself, a position does not make an argument; the argument comes when a writer offers reasons to support the position. You might base an argument in favor of legalizing the sale of human organs on the fact that transplants save lives and that regulation would protect impoverished people who currently sell their organs on the black market.
Convincing evidence. For example, to support your position that fast food should be taxed, you might cite a nutrition expert who links obesity to fast food, offer facts that demonstrate the health-care costs of widespread obesity, and provide statistics that show how taxation affects behavior. Careful consideration of other positions. No matter how reasonable you are in arguing your position, others may disagree or hold other positions.
Widely debated topics such as animal rights or gun control can be difficult to write on if you have no personal connection to them. Better topics include those that interest you right now, are focused, and have some personal connection to your life.
Identify issues that interest you. Pick a few of the roles you list, and identify the issues that interest or concern you. Try wording each issue as a question starting with should: Should college cost less than it does? Should student achievement be measured by standardized tests? What would be better than standardized tests for measuring student achievement? This strategy will help you think about the issue and find a clear focus for your essay.
Choose one issue to write about. Generating ideas and text. Most essays that successfully argue a position share certain features that make them interesting and persuasive.
Consider what interests you about the topic and what more you may need to learn in order to write about it. It may help to do some preliminary research; start with one general source of information a news magazine or Wikipedia, for example to find out the main questions raised about your issue and to get some ideas about how you might argue it.
There are various ways to qualify your thesis: in certain circumstances, under certain conditions, with these limitations, and so on. You need to convince your readers that your thesis is plausible. Start by stating your position and then answering the question why? To ensure we submit original and non-plagiarized papers to our clients, all our papers are passed through a plagiarism check.
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